It looks like the root cause of the problem is that you have a separate /boot/ partition which was at one point properly configured in your /etc/fstab but you (or some other person/script) commented out the fstab entry for this /boot/ partition. This can be seen by this line in your /etc/fstab from sda9:
#UUID=3a7e4da4-1e7c-4c01-9b8b-b2a7248c62f5 /boot ext4 defaults 0 2
I don't know why this is commented out, but it appears to be a mistake. This caused your grub.cfg not to contain any entries for Ubuntu because update-grub creates an entry for each kernel found in /boot/, since your /boot/ partition wasn't mounted you didn't have any kernels in /boot/ and thus no Ubuntu entries were made.
To fix this from a LiveCD/USB, first mount the partition containing your Ubuntu installation's root filesytem: sudo mount /dev/sda9 /mnt/
then edit your fstab: gksudo gedit /mnt/etc/fstab
. That last command should open your fstab in gedit, find the line
#UUID=3a7e4da4-1e7c-4c01-9b8b-b2a7248c62f5 /boot ext4 defaults 0 2
and uncomment it (remove the '#' character from the beginning of the line) then save your changes and exit gedit.
With your fstab fixed, you can now re-install grub and you should get options for both Ubuntu and Windows at boot. Using boot repair to re-install grub will probably work, but I would personally recommend following this guide instead:
https://help.ubuntu.com/community/Grub2/Installing#ChRoot